Introduction
The techniques required in this topic may be exemplified through practical work in marine, terrestrial, freshwater or urban ecosystems, or any combination of these. The selection of environments can be made according to the local systems available to the students, and the most convenient systems for demonstrating the techniques in question. However, there is an advantage in using the various practical measurements to quantify different aspects of the same ecosystem, where possible. In this way, the techniques are not simply rehearsed in isolation, but can be used to build up a holistic model of that system.